Amendments to the Constitution

Was an income tax legal? Whether it was or not, Congress made it legal in 1913 with Amendment XVI to the Constitution. This Amendment directly made it legal for the government to tax part of a workers income.

Isn't there an intimacy between corporations and Congress? This is true; the muckrakers uncovered this. Because of the pressures caused by this, Congress passed Amendment XVII, establishing direct election of senators via popular choice rather than by electoral college.

Alcohol is prohibited in the United States! ... or at least it was when Amendment XVIII was in effect. Passed in 1919, the Amendment floored Demon Rum temporarily thanks to pressures caused by antiliquor campaigns, such as the WCTU.

Women? Voting? At the time, that must have been a riotous joke! However, it happens

all the time today. Why is that? In 1920, women's suffrage was granted under Amendment XIX. This includes rights for women to vote.

Workers Rights Acts - Get Back to Work!

Company treatment of its "most valuable assets" have not always been especially good. Sailors, for instance, were treated brutally from the days of cat-o'-nine-tails onward. The La Follette Seamen's Act of 1915 helped solve this issue. It required decent treatment and a living wage on American ships.

If you became disabled in your line of work, that tough. Workers' Compensation did not exist before 1916, before the Workers' Compensation Act. This Act gave assistance to federal civil-service employees when they were disabled from injury or disease.

Anti-Trust Acts - Evil or Just Business?

The trusts were a major problem in both politics and business. By working together, companies gained great money and power at the expense of the consumer and smaller companies. Something had to be done.

An attempt was made in 1890 with the Sherman Anti-trust Act, which flatly forbade any form of trusts, good or bad. The act was full of loopholes and lawyers were clever, making it virtually ineffective. In fact, it was used at the time to curb labor unions.

The Sherman Act finally grew some "teeth" of its own when Congress passed the Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914, which lengthened the list of objectionable business practices. Furthermore, it conferred benefits on labor and legalized strikes and peaceful picketing.

Food Acts - Tasty, but Safe?

European Markets were shutting out American meats because they were found to be tainted. Yuck! Some governments were even threatening to throw out the good meat with the bad meat. What a waste! Furthermore, thanks to Upton Sinclair and "The Jungle", people began to retreat off of American meats. What was the solution?

Congress (again "influenced" by Roosevelt) passed the Meat Inspection Act of 1906, subjecting meat shipping and preparation to federal inspection. While being revolted by certain features of the act, larger packers successfully used this act as an opportunity to drive other smaller competitors out of business.

Another problem was the mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals (was that Loratadine or Hydrocodone?). As a companion to the Meat Inspection Act, the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was passed to solve this problem.

Railroad Acts - Conquering the Monster

At the time (early 1900s), the railroad industry was a boom. In fact, money and power was flowing through its slippery talons faster than could be controlled. The Interstate Commerce Commission, designed in 1887 in an attempt to curb the beast, was failing miserably. What could be done to stop the terrible tyrant?

Into the spotlight then stepped President Theodore Roosevelt. With some "motivation", Congress finally passed an effective legislation. The first one was the Elkins Act of 1903, which imposed fines on railroads giving rebates and on shippers accepting them.

Even more successful than the Elkins Act was the Hepburn Act of 1906, restricting free passes. Thanks to this Act, the Interstate Commerce Commission was expanded and given power over express companies, sleeping-car companies, and pipeline

By imposing effective legislations on railroads, Roosevelt had brandished his antitrust stick. He probably went to bed that night with a feeling of a job well done.

The Treaty of Paris and the End of the Revolutionary War

The year was 1782. The British empire was at war. The Minorca island had fallen. The Rock of Gibraltar was set to fall. And in the city of Paris, three American negotiators (John Jay, John Adams, and Ben Franklin) gathered to settle peace terms.

Given particular instructions by Congress, the three set off to Paris. The three representatives chafed at the instructions given to them. They were told not to make any separate peace and to consult with their French allies at all stages of negotiations. The three could tell that the French foreign ministry had an indirect hand in the instructions.

France, on the other hand, had other things

on its mind. Promises were made to Spain that would give them Gibraltar. However, Spain wanted the trans-Allegheny area as well. This put France in a tight spot since America was promised it as well.

France wanted an independent United States, but didn't want to deal with it. So France forged a plan to keep America cooped up east of the Allegheny Mountains. Furthermore, it would be easier to promote French interests and policies in a tiny country than in a larger one. France payed money for its troops and now it wanted it back.

John Jay, the representative from New York, smelled trouble

with the ambitions of Americans and Spaniards. He saw signs that would indicate France would betray them.

So, secretly, he broke the instructions given to them by Congress by telling the British of their troubles.

Britain, hard-pressed with the number of enemies that it faced, quickly came to terms with the Americans to get the Americans out of the alliance. The final peace, known as the Treaty of Paris, came out in 1783.

Through the Treaty of Paris (II), Britain finally recognized the independence of the United States. Furthermore, extremely generous amounts of land were given to them including the Mississippi, the Great Lakes, and Florida. Also (to Canadian disapproval), fisheries in Newfoundland would still be theirs.

Why was all this land given to them? The answer is because Britain didn't want the Americans to succumb to their French allies and would do anything to lure them away from the French. The war cost a lot for the French as well, including money, men, and making promises that it couldn't keep to the Spanish crown. So by ending the conflict, France was relieved to free itself from further debt and embarrassment.

During the mid- 18th century, the French and Indian War (Seven Years War) was in its height.Many battles were occurring between the British and the French/Indian force. And the opposition to the British kept coming out on top.

The French forces, combine

d with many of the Native American forces, devastated the English "lobsters". However, Britain has always been able to bring forth an outstanding leader to politics to lead them through hard times. And in this situation, the British brought forth the great orator and politician, William Pitt, faster than law enforcement bringing riot police to a soccer game.

After being elected to office, Pitt, after realizing that France's vitals in North America were in Canada, made his troops leave the French West Indies, which were slowly weakening British military strength, faster than a cheetah leaving a salad bar.

The first French establishment to be laid to waste was the fortress of Louisbourg. Even though the fortress had been fortified more than Fort Knox's fallout shelter (a complete exaggeration), the Siege of Louisbourg brought it down to its knees. This was the first major British victory in the whole war.

On a roll now, Pitt turned his eyes now toward the next city on his to-crush list, Quebec. For this operation, he required the unique touch of a brilliant British officer. He found James Wolfe. Wolfe, a British officer since the age of 14, had a combination of dash with an exaggerated attention to detail. This unusual combination of traits made his career as an officer more successful than a cheater winning the lottery.

The British, making progress after Louisbourg more slowly than a sloth in a sack-race, could not seem to make their way into Quebec. However, when Wolfe arrived, he executed a daring move, sending a detachment up the side of an unguarded cliff, showing the way for other troops, to get to the outskirts of the city.

On that morning, the two armies faced off on the Plains of Abraham in the Battle of Quebec. The British were led by James Wolfe while the French were led by Marquis de Montcalm. Ironically, the two commanders were both fatally wounded in the battle. However, the British defeated the French and the city surrendered.

The Treaty of Paris finally put an end to the French and Indian War. Through this agreement, the British took what was left of Canada, leaving behind a French population smaller than an amoeba with dwarfism. The Indians also lost their biggest weapon through this treaty, the ability to make Europeans fight each other for their gain or amusement.